TED2018
Floyd E. Romesberg: The radical possibilities of man-made DNA
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Every cell that's ever lived has been the result of the four-letter genetic alphabet: A, T, C and G -- the basic units of DNA. But now that's changed. In a visionary talk, synthetic biologist Floyd E. Romesberg introduces us to the first living organisms created with six-letter DNA -- the four natural letters plus two new man-made ones, X and Y -- and explores how this breakthrough could challenge our basic understanding of nature's design.
Floyd E. Romesberg - Chemist, synthetic biologist
Floyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions. Full bio
Floyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions. Full bio
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All life,
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every living thing ever,
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has been built according
to the information in DNA.
to the information in DNA.
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What does that mean?
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Well, it means that just
as the English language
as the English language
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is made up of alphabetic letters
that, when combined into words,
that, when combined into words,
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allow me to tell you the story
I'm going to tell you today,
I'm going to tell you today,
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DNA is made up of genetic letters
that, when combined into genes,
that, when combined into genes,
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allow cells to produce proteins,
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strings of amino acids
that fold up into complex structures
that fold up into complex structures
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that perform the functions
that allow a cell to do what it does,
that allow a cell to do what it does,
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to tell its stories.
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The English alphabet has 26 letters,
and the genetic alphabet has four.
and the genetic alphabet has four.
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They're pretty famous.
Maybe you've heard of them.
Maybe you've heard of them.
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They are often just
referred to as G, C, A and T.
referred to as G, C, A and T.
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But it's remarkable
that all the diversity of life
that all the diversity of life
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is the result of four genetic letters.
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Imagine what it would be like
if the English alphabet had four letters.
if the English alphabet had four letters.
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What sort of stories
would you be able to tell?
would you be able to tell?
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What if the genetic alphabet
had more letters?
had more letters?
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Would life with more letters
be able to tell different stories,
be able to tell different stories,
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maybe even more interesting ones?
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In 1999, my lab at the Scripps
Research Institute in La Jolla, California
Research Institute in La Jolla, California
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started working on this question
with the goal of creating living organisms
with the goal of creating living organisms
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with DNA made up
of a six-letter genetic alphabet,
of a six-letter genetic alphabet,
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the four natural letters
plus two additional new man-made letters.
plus two additional new man-made letters.
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Such an organism would be
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the first radically altered
form of life ever created.
form of life ever created.
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It would be a semisynthetic form of life
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that stores more information
than life ever has before.
than life ever has before.
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It would be able to make new proteins,
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proteins built from more
than the 20 normal amino acids
than the 20 normal amino acids
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that are usually used to build proteins.
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What sort of stories could that life tell?
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With the power of synthetic chemistry
and molecular biology
and molecular biology
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and just under 20 years of work,
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we created bacteria with six-letter DNA.
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Let me tell you how we did it.
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All you have to remember
from your high school biology
from your high school biology
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is that the four natural letters
pair together to form two base pairs.
pair together to form two base pairs.
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G pairs with C and A pairs with T,
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so to create our new letters,
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we synthesized hundreds of new candidates,
new candidate letters,
new candidate letters,
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and examined their abilities
to selectively pair with each other.
to selectively pair with each other.
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And after about 15 years of work,
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we found two that paired
together really well,
together really well,
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at least in a test tube.
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They have complicated names,
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but let's just call them X and Y.
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The next thing we needed to do
was find a way to get X and Y into cells,
was find a way to get X and Y into cells,
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and eventually we found that a protein
that does something similar in algae
that does something similar in algae
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worked in our bacteria.
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So the final thing that we needed to do
was to show that with X and Y provided,
was to show that with X and Y provided,
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cells could grow and divide
and hold on to X and Y in their DNA.
and hold on to X and Y in their DNA.
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Everything we had done up to then
took longer than I had hoped --
took longer than I had hoped --
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I am actually a really impatient person --
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but this, the most important step,
worked faster than I dreamed,
worked faster than I dreamed,
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basically immediately.
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On a weekend in 2014,
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a graduate student in my lab
grew bacteria with six-letter DNA.
grew bacteria with six-letter DNA.
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Let me take the opportunity
to introduce you to them right now.
to introduce you to them right now.
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This is an actual picture of them.
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These are the first
semisynthetic organisms.
semisynthetic organisms.
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So bacteria with six-letter DNA,
that's really cool, right?
that's really cool, right?
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Well, maybe some of you
are still wondering why.
are still wondering why.
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So let me tell you a little bit more
about some of our motivations,
about some of our motivations,
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both conceptual and practical.
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Conceptually, people have
thought about life, what it is,
thought about life, what it is,
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what makes it different
from things that are not alive,
from things that are not alive,
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since people have had thoughts.
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Many have interpreted
life as being perfect,
life as being perfect,
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and this was taken
as evidence of a creator.
as evidence of a creator.
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Living things are different
because a god breathed life into them.
because a god breathed life into them.
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Others have sought
a more scientific explanation,
a more scientific explanation,
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but I think it's fair to say
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that they still consider
the molecules of life to be special.
the molecules of life to be special.
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I mean, evolution has been optimizing them
for billions of years, right?
for billions of years, right?
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Whatever perspective you take,
it would seem pretty impossible
it would seem pretty impossible
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for chemists to come in
and build new parts
and build new parts
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that function within and alongside
the natural molecules of life
the natural molecules of life
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without somehow
really screwing everything up.
really screwing everything up.
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But just how perfectly
created or evolved are we?
created or evolved are we?
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Just how special
are the molecules of life?
are the molecules of life?
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These questions have been
impossible to even ask,
impossible to even ask,
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because we've had nothing
to compare life to.
to compare life to.
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Now for the first time, our work suggests
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that maybe the molecules of life
aren't that special.
aren't that special.
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Maybe life as we know it
isn't the only way it could be.
isn't the only way it could be.
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Maybe we're not the only solution,
maybe not even the best solution,
maybe not even the best solution,
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just a solution.
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These questions address
fundamental issues about life,
fundamental issues about life,
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but maybe they seem a little esoteric.
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So what about practical motivations?
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Well, we want to explore
what sort of new stories
what sort of new stories
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life with an expanded
vocabulary could tell,
vocabulary could tell,
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and remember, stories here
are the proteins that a cell produces
are the proteins that a cell produces
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and the functions they have.
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So what sort of new proteins
with new types of functions
with new types of functions
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could our semisynthetic organisms
make and maybe even use?
make and maybe even use?
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Well, we have a couple of things in mind.
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The first is to get the cells
to make proteins for us, for our use.
to make proteins for us, for our use.
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Proteins are being used today
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for an increasingly broad
range of different applications,
range of different applications,
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from materials that protect
soldiers from injury
soldiers from injury
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to devices that detect
dangerous compounds,
dangerous compounds,
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but at least to me,
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the most exciting application
is protein drugs.
is protein drugs.
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Despite being relatively new,
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protein drugs have already
revolutionized medicine,
revolutionized medicine,
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and, for example, insulin is a protein.
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You've probably heard of it,
and it's manufactured as a drug
and it's manufactured as a drug
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that has completely changed
how we treat diabetes.
how we treat diabetes.
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But the problem is that proteins
are really hard to make
are really hard to make
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and the only practical way to get them
is to get cells to make them for you.
is to get cells to make them for you.
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So of course, with natural cells,
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you can only get them to make
proteins with the natural amino acids,
proteins with the natural amino acids,
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and so the properties
those proteins can have,
those proteins can have,
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the applications
they could be developed for,
they could be developed for,
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must be limited by the nature
of those amino acids
of those amino acids
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that the protein's built from.
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So here they are,
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the 20 normal amino acids that are
strung together to make a protein,
strung together to make a protein,
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and I think you can see,
they're not that different-looking.
they're not that different-looking.
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They don't bring
that many different functions.
that many different functions.
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They don't make that many
different functions available.
different functions available.
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Compare that with the small molecules
that synthetic chemists make as drugs.
that synthetic chemists make as drugs.
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Now, they're much simpler than proteins,
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but they're routinely built from
a much broader range of diverse things.
a much broader range of diverse things.
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Don't worry about the molecular details,
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but I think you can see
how different they are.
how different they are.
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And in fact, it's their differences
that make them great drugs
that make them great drugs
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to treat different diseases.
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So it's really provocative to wonder
what sort of new protein drugs
what sort of new protein drugs
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you could develop if you could build
proteins from more diverse things.
proteins from more diverse things.
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So can we get our semisynthetic organism
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to make proteins that include
new and different amino acids,
new and different amino acids,
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maybe amino acids
selected to confer the protein
selected to confer the protein
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with some desired property or function?
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For example,
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many proteins just aren't stable
when you inject them into people.
when you inject them into people.
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They are rapidly degraded or eliminated,
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and this stops them from being drugs.
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What if we could make proteins
with new amino acids
with new amino acids
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with things attached to them
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that protect them from their environment,
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that protect them
from being degraded or eliminated,
from being degraded or eliminated,
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so that they could be better drugs?
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Could we make proteins
with little fingers attached
with little fingers attached
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that specifically
grab on to other molecules?
grab on to other molecules?
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Many small molecules
failed during development as drugs
failed during development as drugs
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because they just weren't
specific enough to find their target
specific enough to find their target
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in the complex environment
of the human body.
of the human body.
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So could we take those molecules
and make them parts of new amino acids
and make them parts of new amino acids
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that, when incorporated into a protein,
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are guided by that protein
to their target?
to their target?
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I started a biotech company
called Synthorx.
called Synthorx.
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Synthorx stands for synthetic organism
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with an X added at the end because
that's what you do with biotech companies.
that's what you do with biotech companies.
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(Laughter)
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Synthorx is working closely with my lab,
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and they're interested in a protein
that recognizes a certain receptor
that recognizes a certain receptor
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on the surface of human cells.
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But the problem is that it also recognizes
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another receptor on the surface
of those same cells,
of those same cells,
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and that makes it toxic.
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So could we produce
a variant of that protein
a variant of that protein
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where the part that interacts
with that second bad receptor is shielded,
with that second bad receptor is shielded,
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blocked by something like a big umbrella
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so that the protein only interacts
with that first good receptor?
with that first good receptor?
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Doing that would be really difficult
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or impossible to do
with the normal amino acids,
with the normal amino acids,
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but not with amino acids that are
specifically designed for that purpose.
specifically designed for that purpose.
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So getting our semisynthetic cells
to act as little factories
to act as little factories
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to produce better protein drugs
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isn't the only potentially
really interesting application,
really interesting application,
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because remember, it's the proteins
that allow cells to do what they do.
that allow cells to do what they do.
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So if we have cells that make
new proteins with new functions,
new proteins with new functions,
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could we get them to do things
that natural cells can't do?
that natural cells can't do?
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For example, could we develop
semisynthetic organisms
semisynthetic organisms
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that when injected into a person,
seek out cancer cells
seek out cancer cells
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and only when they find them,
secrete a toxic protein that kills them?
secrete a toxic protein that kills them?
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Could we create bacteria
that eat different kinds of oil,
that eat different kinds of oil,
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maybe to clean up an oil spill?
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These are just a couple
of the types of stories
of the types of stories
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that we're going to see if life
with an expanded vocabulary can tell.
with an expanded vocabulary can tell.
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So, sounds great, right?
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Injecting semisynthetic
organisms into people,
organisms into people,
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dumping millions and millions of gallons
of our bacteria into the ocean
of our bacteria into the ocean
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or out on your favorite beach?
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Oh, wait a minute,
actually it sounds really scary.
actually it sounds really scary.
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This dinosaur is really scary.
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But here's the catch:
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our semisynthetic organisms
in order to survive,
in order to survive,
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need to be fed the chemical
precursors of X and Y.
precursors of X and Y.
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X and Y are completely different
than anything that exists in nature.
than anything that exists in nature.
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Cells just don't have them
or the ability to make them.
or the ability to make them.
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So when we prepare them,
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when we grow them up
in the controlled environment of the lab,
in the controlled environment of the lab,
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we can feed them
lots of the unnatural food.
lots of the unnatural food.
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Then, when we deploy them
in a person or out on a beach
in a person or out on a beach
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where they no longer
have access that special food,
have access that special food,
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they can grow for a little bit,
they can survive for a little,
they can survive for a little,
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maybe just long enough
to perform some intended function,
to perform some intended function,
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but then they start
to run out of the food.
to run out of the food.
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They start to starve.
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They starve to death
and they just disappear.
and they just disappear.
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So not only could we get life
to tell new stories,
to tell new stories,
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we get to tell life when and where
to tell those stories.
to tell those stories.
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At the beginning of this talk
I told you that we reported in 2014
I told you that we reported in 2014
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the creation of semisynthetic organisms
that store more information,
that store more information,
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X and Y, in their DNA.
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But all the motivations
that we just talked about
that we just talked about
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require cells to use X and Y
to make proteins,
to make proteins,
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so we started working on that.
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Within a couple years, we showed
that the cells could take DNA with X and Y
that the cells could take DNA with X and Y
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and copy it into RNA,
the working copy of DNA.
the working copy of DNA.
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And late last year,
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we showed that they could then
use X and Y to make proteins.
use X and Y to make proteins.
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Here they are, the stars of the show,
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the first fully-functional
semisynthetic organisms.
semisynthetic organisms.
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(Applause)
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These cells are green because
they're making a protein that glows green.
they're making a protein that glows green.
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It's a pretty famous protein,
actually, from jellyfish
actually, from jellyfish
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that a lot of people use
in its natural form
in its natural form
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because it's easy to see that you made it.
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But within every one of these proteins,
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there's a new amino acid that
natural life can't build proteins with.
natural life can't build proteins with.
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Every living cell, every living cell ever,
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has made every one of its proteins
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using a four-letter genetic alphabet.
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These cells are living and growing
and making protein
and making protein
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with a six-letter alphabet.
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These are a new form of life.
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This is a semisynthetic form of life.
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So what about the future?
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My lab is already working on expanding
the genetic alphabet of other cells,
the genetic alphabet of other cells,
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including human cells,
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and we're getting ready to start working
on more complex organisms.
on more complex organisms.
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Think semisynthetic worms.
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The last thing I want to say to you,
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the most important thing
that I want to say to you,
that I want to say to you,
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is that the time
of semisynthetic life is here.
of semisynthetic life is here.
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Thank you.
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(Applause)
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Chris Anderson: I mean,
Floyd, this is so remarkable.
Floyd, this is so remarkable.
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I just wanted to ask you,
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what are the implications of your work
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for how we should think
about the possibilities for life,
about the possibilities for life,
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like, in the universe, elsewhere?
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It just seems like so much of life,
or so much of our assumptions are based
or so much of our assumptions are based
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on the fact that of course,
it's got to be DNA,
it's got to be DNA,
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but is the possibility space
of self-replicating molecules
of self-replicating molecules
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much bigger than DNA,
even just DNA with six letters?
even just DNA with six letters?
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Floyd Romesberg:
Absolutely, I think that's right,
Absolutely, I think that's right,
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and I think what our work has shown,
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as I mentioned, is that
there's been always this prejudice
there's been always this prejudice
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that sort of we're perfect,
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we're optimal, God created us this way,
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evolution perfected us this way.
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We've made molecules that work
right alongside the natural ones,
right alongside the natural ones,
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and I think that suggests
that any molecules
that any molecules
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that obey the fundamental laws
of chemistry and physics
of chemistry and physics
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and you can optimize them
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could do the things that
the natural molecules of life do.
the natural molecules of life do.
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There's nothing magic there.
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And I think that it suggests
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that life could evolve
many different ways,
many different ways,
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maybe similar to us
with other types of DNA,
with other types of DNA,
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maybe things without DNA at all.
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CA: I mean, in your mind,
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how big might that possibility space be?
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Do we even know? Are most things going
to look something like a DNA molecule,
to look something like a DNA molecule,
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or something radically different
that can still self-reproduce
that can still self-reproduce
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and potentially create living organisms?
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FR: My personal opinion
is that if we found new life,
is that if we found new life,
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we might not even recognize it.
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CA: So this obsession
with the search for Goldilocks planets
with the search for Goldilocks planets
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in exactly the right place
with water and whatever,
with water and whatever,
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that's a very parochial
assumption, perhaps.
assumption, perhaps.
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FR: Well, if you want to find someone
you can talk to, then maybe not,
you can talk to, then maybe not,
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but I think that if you're just
looking for any form of life,
looking for any form of life,
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I think that's right, I think that you're
looking for life under the light post.
looking for life under the light post.
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CA: Thank you for boggling all our minds.
Thank so much, Floyd.
Thank so much, Floyd.
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(Applause)
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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Floyd E. Romesberg - Chemist, synthetic biologistFloyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions.
Why you should listen
Floyd E. Romesberg is the director of a talented team of researchers at The Scripps Research Institute who are working to understand how evolution tailors protein function, to develop novel antibiotics and aptamers and to expand on the potential of evolution through the expansion of the genetic alphabet. A chemist by training, Romesberg works beyond the traditional divides between scientific disciplines.
Since the last common ancestor of all life on earth, biological information has been stored in a four-letter alphabet consisting of G, A, T and C. In 1998, Romesberg wondered: Is DNA limited to four letters? The answer is a resounding "No!" Romesberg and his research group have designed, tested and optimized hundreds of unnatural DNA letters, and they have achieved impressive milestones including replication and amplification of six-letter DNA in a test tube; the use of six-letter DNA to produce novel materials; and most recently the creation of semi-synthetic life that stores and retrieves the increased information. The advances led to Romesberg founding Synthorx, Inc., a biotechnology company that uses the expanded genetic alphabet to develop novel protein therapeutics.
Floyd E. Romesberg | Speaker | TED.com