TEDxLSU
Juliet Brophy: How a new species of ancestors is changing our theory of human evolution
朱莉亚-布若菲: 新发现的人种如何改变人类进化论
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2013年， 研究者在南非的一个洞穴中发现了非同寻常的化石宝藏。他们很快意识到：这些是一种新发现人种的遗骸。古人类专家朱莉亚-布若菲带领我们进入发掘奈勒迪人的过程，并阐述这个神秘的祖先是怎样迫使我们重新思考我们的起源——以及人类存在的意义。
Juliet Brophy - Paleoanthropologist
Juliet Brophy explores human evolution in southern Africa. Full bio
Juliet Brophy explores human evolution in southern Africa. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:13
Human origins.
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人类是如何起源的？
00:15
Who are we?
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我们是谁？
00:16
Where do we come from,
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我们从哪里来？
又是怎么知道的呢？
00:18
and how do we know?
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00:20
In my field, paleoanthropology,
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在我们古人类研究领域，
我们通过分析几千年前，
甚至百万年前的化石，
甚至百万年前的化石，
00:22
we explore human origins --
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来探索人类的起源——
00:24
the "who" and "where" questions --
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回答“是谁”和“在哪里”的问题。
00:26
by analyzing fossils that date back
thousands and even millions of years.
thousands and even millions of years.
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00:32
In 2015, a team of colleagues and I
named a new species in the genus Homo --
named a new species in the genus Homo --
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2015年，我和一个考察小组
命名了一个新发现的人类物种——
命名了一个新发现的人类物种——
我们的人属——
00:37
our genus --
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奈勒迪人。
00:39
Homo naledi.
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00:42
Let's take a step back
and put that into context.
and put that into context.
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来回顾一下这个过程，
就会更容易理解。
就会更容易理解。
00:47
The last common ancestors
between humans and chimps
between humans and chimps
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最晚发现的猿和人的共同祖先，
可以追溯到600到800万年前。
00:50
date somewhere between six
and eight million years.
and eight million years.
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00:54
The earliest hominins,
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最早的人类，
或者说人类最远的祖先，
00:56
or earliest human ancestors,
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进化为我们所说的南方古猿。
00:57
evolved into a group
known as the australopithecines.
known as the australopithecines.
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01:01
The australopithecines
evolved into the genus Homo
evolved into the genus Homo
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这些南方古猿进化为人属，
并最终进化成现代人类——我们。
01:05
and eventually modern humans -- us.
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01:09
With each new fossil discovery,
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随着每种新化石的发现，
我们都会更接近那个答案，
更能理解我们是谁，
更能理解我们是谁，
01:11
we get a little bit closer
to better understanding who we are
to better understanding who we are
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我们从哪里来。
01:15
and where we came from.
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01:17
With these new fossil finds,
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基于这次新的化石发现，
我们意识到必须改变这个树形图。
01:19
we realize we now have to make
changes to this tree.
changes to this tree.
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01:24
Until this discovery,
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在这次的发现之前，
01:26
we thought we had a pretty good idea
about the patterns of evolutionary change.
about the patterns of evolutionary change.
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我们以为自己对进化的
模式有个很好的概念，
模式有个很好的概念，
01:31
Current fossil evidence suggests
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现有的化石证据显示，
大概200-300万年前，
01:33
that the earliest populations
of the genus Homo evolved in Africa
of the genus Homo evolved in Africa
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最早的人属在非洲进化而成。
01:36
somewhere between two
and three million years.
and three million years.
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01:39
Fast-forward to approximately
300,000 years to where we see the origins
300,000 years to where we see the origins
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快进一下，从大概30万年前，到第一批
现代人类的出现。
01:43
of the first modern humans.
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01:46
While the fossil record
between these time frames in Africa
between these time frames in Africa
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虽然在这个时间框架中的化石记录
相对稀少，
01:49
is relatively sparse,
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这些化石还是展示出了
从我们最远的祖先到
从我们最远的祖先到
01:51
the fossils nonetheless
demonstrated certain trends
demonstrated certain trends
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现代人类的特定的演变趋势。
01:54
from our earliest ancestors
to modern humans.
to modern humans.
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01:58
For example, our brains
were becoming larger
were becoming larger
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比方说，相对于身体的其他部位
我们的大脑变得越来越大。
02:01
relative the rest of our body.
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02:03
Our pelves were becoming more bowl-shaped,
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我们的骨盆更呈现为盆状，
并且我们的手腕形态，或者说样子，
02:06
and our hand-wrist morphology, or form,
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这些表明当我们开始制造和使用石器时，
用手抓握的方式产生了变化，
用手抓握的方式产生了变化，
02:09
suggested a change in our grip
as we began to make and use stone tools
as we began to make and use stone tools
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同时也更少地待在树上。
02:13
and spend less time in the trees.
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02:16
These new fossils disrupt everything
we thought we knew about these trends
we thought we knew about these trends
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这些新发现的化石打乱了
我们对这些演变趋势的一切认知，
我们对这些演变趋势的一切认知，
并迫使我们改变对人类进化的认识。
02:22
and force us to change the way
that we think about human evolution.
that we think about human evolution.
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02:28
South Africa in general,
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南非这片土地，
是人类发展的摇篮。
02:30
but the Cradle of Humankind in particular,
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那里无数的遗址中，
数以万计的化石还未曾被发现。
数以万计的化石还未曾被发现。
02:32
contains numerous sites where hundreds
of thousands of fossils have been found.
of thousands of fossils have been found.
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02:36
As an undergraduate student,
I fell in love with one of them ...
I fell in love with one of them ...
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在读本科的时候，我爱上了其中一个
普莱斯先生。
02:40
Mrs. Ples.
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这是我们在210万年前
一个早期远祖的头骨。
一个早期远祖的头骨。
02:41
The skull of a 2.1-million-year-old
early human ancestor.
early human ancestor.
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02:45
From that point on,
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从那时起，
我决定去南非，研究人类进化。
02:46
I was determined to go to South Africa
and study human evolution.
and study human evolution.
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02:50
I first traveled there in 2003,
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2003年，我第一次去那里，
并有机会看望了我深爱的普莱斯先生。
02:52
and I did get to see my beloved Mrs. Ples.
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（笑声）
02:55
(Laughter)
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语言根本无法形容我当时的激动心情。
02:56
But words can hardly convey my excitement
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当时我被世界著名的古人类学家李·博格
02:59
when I was chosen
as an early career scientist
as an early career scientist
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选为青年科技人员，
03:02
by Lee Berger,
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并在一个最近发掘
03:04
a world-renowned paleoanthropologist,
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但尚未公布的化石遗址，担任分析组成员。
03:06
to be one of the primary analysts
of recently excavated unpublished fossils.
of recently excavated unpublished fossils.
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03:13
This treasure trove of fossils
was being recovered from a new site
was being recovered from a new site
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这个化石宝藏是在一个叫
Dinaledi Chamber的新遗址里发现的
Dinaledi Chamber的新遗址里发现的
属于瑞星洞系。
03:18
called the Dinaledi Chamber
in the Rising Star cave system.
in the Rising Star cave system.
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03:23
Species are often named
based on a skull, a lower jaw,
based on a skull, a lower jaw,
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我们以往常常根据头颅骨，下颚，
或者，极少见的情况下，
03:27
or, very rarely,
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一把颅后骨或者颈下骨的特点命名标本。
03:28
a handful of postcranial,
or below-the-neck, elements.
or below-the-neck, elements.
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03:32
The fossils from Dinaledi
were another story altogether.
were another story altogether.
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在Dinaledi发现的化石却是不同的情况。
03:36
An unprecedented
approximately 1800 specimens --
approximately 1800 specimens --
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在瑞星系列洞穴出土了
大概1800件的标本——
大概1800件的标本——
到目前为止——
03:40
so far --
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这是一个史无前例的数目，
03:41
have been excavated
from the Rising Star system,
from the Rising Star system,
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它至少可以拼成15具独立的骨架。
03:44
representing at least
15 individual skeletons.
15 individual skeletons.
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03:50
The research team
that I was invited to join
that I was invited to join
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我参加的那个研究小组收到一项任务，
对这些难以分辨哪一块
属于哪一具骨架的化石
属于哪一具骨架的化石
03:52
was tasked with describing,
comparing and analyzing the fossils,
comparing and analyzing the fossils,
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进行描述，比较和分析。
03:56
with the difficult goal of identifying
to what species the fossils belonged.
to what species the fossils belonged.
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04:01
We were divided up
into our different areas of expertise.
into our different areas of expertise.
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我们被分成了不同领域的专项组。
04:04
We were divided up
in different areas of the lab, too.
in different areas of the lab, too.
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还被分配到了不同领域的实验室。
因此，这里有"Hand Land,"
一个专门研究手的小组，
一个专门研究手的小组，
04:07
So there was "Hand Land,"
for the fossil hand people,
for the fossil hand people,
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"Hip Heaven" 是骨盆专家们...
04:11
"Hip Heaven" for the pelvis ...
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04:13
I was in the "Tooth Booth."
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我是研究牙齿的，在 "Tooth Booth"组。
04:15
(Laughter)
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（笑声）
尽管在实验室里劳碌了一整天，
04:16
And after long, intense days in the lab,
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晚上，不同小组成员
还要开会，讨论新的发现，
还要开会，讨论新的发现，
04:19
the different teams would meet up at night
and discuss our findings,
and discuss our findings,
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我们仍然能对分析过程中
产生的问题兴致勃勃。
产生的问题兴致勃勃。
04:22
still consumed by questions
from our analyses.
from our analyses.
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你难以相信有多少种不同的解释。
04:25
It was incredible how different
the interpretations were.
the interpretations were.
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04:29
Each body part seemed to come
from a different species,
from a different species,
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根据我们已知的化石记录，
每一个身体部位都好像是
来自一个不同的物种。
来自一个不同的物种。
04:32
based on what we knew
from the fossil record.
from the fossil record.
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04:35
The suite of characteristics we were
seeing didn't match any known species.
seeing didn't match any known species.
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我们眼前的这些化石特点不能和
任何已知物种相匹配。
任何已知物种相匹配。
04:40
And if we had only recovered the skull,
we might have called it one thing;
we might have called it one thing;
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如果只发现了这个颅骨，
我们也许会称做它是一种东西；
我们也许会称做它是一种东西；
如果只发现了这个骨盆，
我们也许会称它为另一个东西。
我们也许会称它为另一个东西。
04:44
if we had only recovered the pelvis,
we might have called it another.
we might have called it another.
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04:48
The anatomy of the skeletons
didn't make sense
didn't make sense
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当我们用自以为正确的
人类进化论模式思考时，
人类进化论模式思考时，
对这些骨骼的刨析就站不住脚。
04:51
with the framework of what we thought
we knew of human evolution.
we knew of human evolution.
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04:55
Did it belong in the genus Homo?
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它属于人属吗？
04:58
Should it be an australopithecine?
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它会是一种南方古猿吗？
这些两足动物，更像我们的类猿祖先吗？
05:00
Those bipedal, more apelike ancestors?
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05:03
Or perhaps it should be its own species.
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或许它应该自成一个物种。
05:06
Ultimately, after much deliberation,
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最终，在反复商议之后，
我们决定把这种瑞星标本
列为一个新的物种，
列为一个新的物种，
05:09
we decided the Rising Star specimens
did indeed warrant a new species,
did indeed warrant a new species,
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就叫奈勒迪人。
05:13
which we called "Homo naledi."
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05:16
From the head to the feet,
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这些化石从头至脚
呈现出两种特征的混合：
05:18
the fossils present a mosaic
of primitive, or ancestral,
of primitive, or ancestral,
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原始的，或者说先祖的特征
和衍生的，更像现代人的特征。
和衍生的，更像现代人的特征。
05:22
and derived or more modern-like features.
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05:25
The skull is quite derived,
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这个头骨是衍生的。
它和早期人类的特征最相似，
05:28
appearing most similar to early
representatives of the genus Homo,
representatives of the genus Homo,
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就像巧人和直立人一样。
05:31
like Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
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05:35
However, the brain is scarcely
half the size of a modern human one.
half the size of a modern human one.
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然而，它的大脑仅仅是
现代人类的一半大小。
现代人类的一半大小。
05:39
One that is smaller than any other
early Homo that has ever been found.
early Homo that has ever been found.
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它比任何一个已发现的
早期人类的头骨都要小。
早期人类的头骨都要小。
05:45
As someone who studies teeth,
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做为一个研究牙齿的成员，
我得说，这是在这个遗址
发现的最酷的化石。
发现的最酷的化石。
05:47
I might argue these are the coolest
fossils found at the site.
fossils found at the site.
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（笑声）
05:50
(Laughter)
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这组化石包括190颗整牙和牙齿碎片,
05:51
The assemblage consists of 190
whole or fragmentary teeth
whole or fragmentary teeth
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它们的年龄跨度从高龄到低龄。
05:54
that range in age
from very old to very young.
from very old to very young.
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05:58
Like the skeletons,
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就像这具骨骼，
它的牙齿呈现出原始和演化的特征。
05:59
the teeth present a mix
of primitive and derived traits.
of primitive and derived traits.
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06:03
In modern humans,
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现代人的牙齿中，
第三颗磨牙的特征就是
最小的，而第一颗却是最大的，
最小的，而第一颗却是最大的，
06:04
the third molar is typically the smallest,
while the first molar is the biggest,
while the first molar is the biggest,
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但是奈勒迪人牙齿的基本特征是：
06:09
but Homo naledi
has the primitive condition
has the primitive condition
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第三颗磨牙是最大的，而第一颗是最小的。
06:11
where the third molar is the biggest
and the first molar is the smallest.
and the first molar is the smallest.
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06:16
The anterior teeth,
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人类前面的牙齿，
也叫门齿和犬齿，
06:17
or the incisors and canines,
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是很小的，
06:19
are small for the genus Homo,
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并且下犬齿有齿尖——
06:22
and the lower canine
has a cuspulid on it --
has a cuspulid on it --
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那是一个明显像手套一样的额外的牙尖。
06:25
an extra cuspule that gives it
a distinct mitten-like shape
a distinct mitten-like shape
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一些早期人类和直立人的
标本上都有这个特点。
标本上都有这个特点。
06:29
that it shares with some specimens
of the early human, Homo erectus.
of the early human, Homo erectus.
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06:35
The overall shape of the teeth
looked odd to me,
looked odd to me,
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我觉得这些牙齿形状看起来很奇怪，
所以我在这个
06:38
so I performed crown-shape analysis
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乳牙的咬合表面分析了牙冠-形状——
06:41
on the occlusal surfaces
of deciduous teeth, or baby teeth --
of deciduous teeth, or baby teeth --
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左侧的-——
06:46
on your left --
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还有右侧的恒牙前齿和磨牙。
06:47
and the permanent premolars
and molars on your right.
and molars on your right.
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06:51
The deciduous teeth are especially narrow,
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这些乳牙的轮廓格外狭窄。
和其他人种相比，
06:55
and the premolars are unique
in their outline shape
in their outline shape
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这些前齿的轮廓非常特别。
06:58
compared to other hominids.
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07:00
In fact, when I compare the outlines,
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事实上，当我比较它们的轮廓时，
当我把一副牙骨放在另一副上，
07:03
when I lay them on top of each other,
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它们看上去非常相似。
07:04
they look very similar.
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07:07
We say they have
"low intraspecific variations,"
"low intraspecific variations,"
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我们说它们具有“低物种内多样性”
也就是说，在同一物种内，变化较少。
07:10
so the variation
within the species is low.
within the species is low.
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当我们把它们和一些类似
南方古猿的群体进行对比时，
南方古猿的群体进行对比时，
07:12
When I compare this to groups
like the australopithecines,
like the australopithecines,
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物种内的多样性就大得多。
07:15
the intraspecific variation
is much larger.
is much larger.
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07:20
Postcranially, the team concluded
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关于颅下结构，小组得出的结论是，
肩部的位置说明奈勒迪人擅长攀爬；
07:22
that the position of the shoulders
suggesting naledi was a climber;
suggesting naledi was a climber;
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宽阔的骨盆和弯曲的手指
都属于远古人的特征。
都属于远古人的特征。
07:25
the flared pelvis and curved fingers
are all primitive for the genus Homo.
are all primitive for the genus Homo.
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07:31
On the other hand,
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另一方面，
和人类相似的腰部和足部，修长的双腿
07:33
the humanlike wrist,
long slender legs and modern feet
long slender legs and modern feet
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都和其他人种类似。
07:37
are all consistent
with other members of the genus.
with other members of the genus.
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07:42
In 2017, we announced
more specimens of Homo naledi
more specimens of Homo naledi
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2017年，我们公布了更多的奈勒迪人样本。
它们是在Lesedi Chamber旁边发现的，
07:47
from the nearby Lesedi Chamber,
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这个地方也属于瑞星洞系。
07:49
also in the Rising Star cave system.
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07:52
In addition, our geology team
managed to produce an age estimate.
managed to produce an age estimate.
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另外，我们的地质小组
设法做出了一个年代估算。
设法做出了一个年代估算。
07:57
The date's a big deal
because, up until now,
because, up until now,
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数据非常重要，因为目前为止，
我们的分析仅仅是基于人类标本。
08:00
we had based our analysis solely
on the morphology of the specimens,
on the morphology of the specimens,
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没有对年代判断的基本知识，
08:04
without previous knowledge
of how old something is --
of how old something is --
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也许有意无意中，我们的理解会有失偏颇。
08:07
something which could unconsciously
bias our interpretations.
bias our interpretations.
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08:11
With its small brain and flared pelvis,
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看这个小小的头骨和宽阔的骨盆，
如果早知道它们原来
08:14
we would not have been surprised
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已经有200万年历史了，
我们就不会如此惊讶了。
我们就不会如此惊讶了。
08:16
if the fossils turned out to be
two million years old.
two million years old.
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08:19
Instead, the fossils dated
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其实，这些化石可以追溯到
23.5-33.6万年前。
08:21
to 235 to 336 thousand years,
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对这么小的头骨来说，
这个年代太新，令人难以置信。
这个年代太新，令人难以置信。
08:26
an incredibly young date
for such a small-brained individual.
for such a small-brained individual.
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08:29
So think back to what I said earlier:
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想一想我刚才说过的：
我们以为相对于身体的其他部位
而言，我们的大脑正在变大。
而言，我们的大脑正在变大。
08:31
we thought that our brains were becoming
larger relative to the rest of our body.
larger relative to the rest of our body.
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现在这个大脑体积小，年代很新的
标本让这件事复杂起来。
标本让这件事复杂起来。
08:35
Now we have a small-brained,
young individual complicating this idea.
young individual complicating this idea.
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08:41
What does all this mean?
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这都意味着什么呢？
08:44
Homo naledi has taught us
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奈勒迪人给了我们一个启示，
我们需要重新测评什么是人属。
08:45
that we need to reassess
what it means to be in the genus Homo.
what it means to be in the genus Homo.
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08:49
We need to rethink
what it means to be human.
what it means to be human.
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我们需要重新思考什么是人类。
08:51
In fact, most of the characteristics
that we use to define the genus Homo,
that we use to define the genus Homo,
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实际上，大多数我们
用来定义人属的那些特征，
用来定义人属的那些特征，
比如大脑尺寸和臀部形态，
08:56
such as brain size and hip morphology,
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都已经不再有效了。
08:58
are no longer valid.
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09:01
No other species exists with this mix
of primitive and derived traits.
of primitive and derived traits.
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没有哪个物种混合着
既原始又衍生的特点。
既原始又衍生的特点。
09:07
Why is there so much morphological
variation in the genus Homo?
variation in the genus Homo?
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为什么会有这么多形态各异的人属？
又是什么促进了这种多样性的呢？
09:10
And what force is driving that variation?
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09:14
Another implication for these fossils
is that for the first time,
is that for the first time,
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这些化石的另外一些影响是，它第一次
提供了确凿的证据说明了
09:17
we have concrete evidence
of a species coexisting in Africa,
of a species coexisting in Africa,
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30万年前非洲的物种和
09:21
at 300,000 years,
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现代人类的共生关系。
09:23
with modern humans.
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09:25
Until this discovery,
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这次发现之前，
我们以为只有大脑体积较大的
现代人在非洲存在过。
现代人在非洲存在过。
09:26
we only had large-brained
modern humans that existed in Africa.
modern humans that existed in Africa.
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09:33
Did they interbreed with each other?
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他们之间是否杂交过？
09:35
Did they compete with each other?
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他们是否相互竞争？
09:38
Another implication
that these fossils have
that these fossils have
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另外一个意义是，这些化石
给考古学家提供了
研究非洲石器时代的机会。
研究非洲石器时代的机会。
09:42
is for the archaeologists
studying stone tools in South Africa.
studying stone tools in South Africa.
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09:45
Keep in mind that neither the Dinaledi
nor the Lesedi Chambers
nor the Lesedi Chambers
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别忘了既不是Dinaledi，
也不是Lesedi Chambers
也不是Lesedi Chambers
才拥有史前古器物。
09:49
have any artifacts in them.
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09:51
However, they do overlap in time
with several stone-tool industries,
with several stone-tool industries,
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然而，他们的几个石器工业时代
在某些时候是重合的，
在某些时候是重合的，
它们上面的标记被认为要么是现代人的，
09:56
the makers of which are considered
to be either modern humans
to be either modern humans
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要么是人类祖先的。
09:59
or direct human ancestors.
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10:02
This begs the question:
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这就引出了一个问题：
谁制造了南非的史前石器？
10:04
Who made the stone tools of South Africa?
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10:07
Brain size has historically
played a key role
played a key role
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历史上，大脑的体积在界定物种的时候
起到了重要作用。
10:09
in identifying a species as a tool user.
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这个概念说明，只有拥有较大的大脑，
10:12
The idea is that you need
to have a large brain
to have a large brain
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你才具备制造石器的能力。
10:14
to have even the capacity
to make stone tools.
to make stone tools.
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但是我们开始怀疑这个概念了。
10:17
But that notion has been questioned.
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10:19
Furthermore, Homo naledi,
even with its small brain size,
even with its small brain size,
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进一步说，奈勒迪人虽然大脑体积小，
手腕形状却和
10:22
has a hand-wrist morphology
similar to other species
similar to other species
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其他制造工具的物种类似，
10:25
that did make and use stone tools,
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说明它也具备同样的能力。
10:28
suggesting it had the capability.
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10:31
With two species coexisting
in Africa at 300,000 years,
in Africa at 300,000 years,
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考虑到这两种物种在非洲共生了30万年，
我们不能再假定我们知道，在遗址上的
10:35
we can no longer assume
we know the maker of tools
we know the maker of tools
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工具制造者和别的物种没有关联。
10:38
at sites with no associated species.
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10:43
So where does Homo naledi fit
in our human evolutionary lineage?
in our human evolutionary lineage?
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那么，奈勒迪人应该在
人类进化线上哪个位置上呢？
人类进化线上哪个位置上呢？
10:47
Who is it most closely related to?
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它最接近谁呢？
它从什么物种进化而来？
10:49
Who did it evolve from?
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10:51
We're still trying to figure all that out.
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我们仍然在寻找答案。
10:53
It's ironic, because
paleoanthropologists are renowned
paleoanthropologists are renowned
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这很讽刺，因为古人类学家
以拥有少量的标本著称。
10:56
for having small sample sizes.
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我们现在有大量的标本，
10:58
We now have a large sample size,
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问题却比答案更多了。
11:00
and more questions than answers.
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11:02
Homo naledi has taught us,
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奈勒迪人给了我们启示，
带我们更进一步
11:04
has brought us a little bit closer
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理解我们的进化史。
11:06
to better understanding
our evolutionary past.
our evolutionary past.
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11:10
So while Mrs. Ples will always hold
a special place in my heart,
a special place in my heart,
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因此我心中将会一直留有
普勒斯太太的角色，
普勒斯太太的角色，
她现在正在和成千上万的
人分享这个角色。
人分享这个角色。
11:14
she now shares that space
with several thousand others.
with several thousand others.
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（笑声）
11:16
(Laughter)
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谢谢。
11:18
Thank you.
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（掌声）
11:19
(Applause)
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Translated by Doris Zhang
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Juliet Brophy - PaleoanthropologistJuliet Brophy explores human evolution in southern Africa.
Why you should listen
Juliet Brophy's research interests involve using morphometric analyses of fossil teeth to examine taxonomic differences among Plio-Pleistocene fossil human ancestors (hominins) and to evaluate their evolutionary relationships. Her most recent focus investigates the teeth of Australopithecus sediba and Homo naledi from South Africa. Her ongoing research helped establish the phylogenetic position of these fossils.
Brophy also documents the paleoenvironments associated with the South African hominins and assesses how changes in these environments might have influenced human evolution. She works as an assistant professor biological anthropologist with a specialization in paleoanthropology in the Department of Geography and Anthropology at Louisiana State University.
Juliet Brophy | Speaker | TED.com