ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Kristin Poinar - Glaciologist
Kristin Poinar uses remote sensing and numerical models to study the interaction of meltwater with ice flow, especially on the Greenland Ice Sheet.

Why you should listen

Hidden under many meters of ice, a pool of meltwater lies under the Greenland Ice Sheet. Kristin Poinar studies how the meltwater forms and flows in this dynamic glacial system. She asks: How did this water get there, and where does it go? How much water is in there? And how is climate change affecting this system?

Using data from Operation IceBridge flights and from field instruments, she's building a numerical model of how crevasses form and channel water. In fact, a NASA report released in February 2017 revealed a new pathway her team discovered for meltwater to reach the ocean. Using physically based models to constrain the bounds of what is realistic has shaped Poinar's interest in glaciology.

Poinar is currently a postdoctoral researcher at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. She will be moving to the University at Buffalo in winter 2017 to be a professor in the Geology Department and the RENEW Institute.

More profile about the speaker
Kristin Poinar | Speaker | TED.com
TED2017

Kristin Poinar: What's hidden under the Greenland ice sheet?

克莉絲汀波伊娜: 格林蘭大冰原底下藏著什麼?

Filmed:
4,494,857 views

格林蘭的大冰原非常巨大、神秘,且正在融化。運用先進科技,科學家初次揭露了它的秘密,而他們的發現非常驚人:藏在大冰原底下的,是廣大的含水層,有太浩湖湖水那麼多的水量,來自夏季的融冰。水會留在那裡嗎?或是水會找到路通往海洋,造成全球海平面上升?加入冰河學家克莉絲汀波伊娜,到冰凍遺忘之地走一趟,來了解這些問題。
- Glaciologist
Kristin Poinar uses remote sensing and numerical models to study the interaction of meltwater with ice flow, especially on the Greenland Ice Sheet. Full bio

Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.

00:12
When was I was 21 years年份 old,
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當我二十一歲時,
00:15
I had all this physics物理 homework家庭作業.
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我有一堆物理的作業。
00:17
Physics物理 homework家庭作業 requires要求 taking服用 breaks休息,
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寫物理作業需要休息,
00:20
and Wikipedia維基百科 was relatively相對 new,
so I took a lot of breaks休息 there.
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維基百科當時相對很新,
所以我常在那裡休息。
00:24
I kept不停 going back to the same相同 articles用品,
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我不斷回去看同樣的文章,
00:26
reading them again and again,
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一而再再而三地閱讀,
00:28
on glaciers冰川, Antarctica南極洲 and Greenland格陵蘭.
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多半是關於冰河、南極洲、
格林蘭島的文章。
00:33
How cool would it be to visit訪問 these places地方
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如果能造訪這些地方,會有多酷?
00:35
and what would it take to do so?
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要什麼代價才能這麼做?
00:38
Well, here we are
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我們這裡看到的,
00:39
on a repurposed改變用途 Air空氣 Force cargo貨物 plane平面
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是由美國太空總署
重新改裝的空軍運輸機
00:41
operated操作 by NASANASA
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00:43
flying飛行 over the Greenland格陵蘭 ice sheet.
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飛過格林蘭的大冰原時
看出去的畫面。
00:46
There's a lot to see here,
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這裡有很多值得看的,
00:48
but there's more that is hidden,
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但還有更多是隱藏的、
00:49
waiting等候 to be uncovered裸露.
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尚待發掘的。
00:52
What the Wikipedia維基百科 articles用品 didn't tell me
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維基百科的文章沒有告訴我
00:54
is that there's liquid液體 water
hidden inside the ice sheet,
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有液態的水隱藏在大冰原的內部,
00:58
because we didn't know that yet然而.
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因為我們還不知道這一點。
01:02
I did learn學習 on Wikipedia維基百科
that the Greenland格陵蘭 ice sheet is huge巨大,
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不過我的確有從維基百科
學到格林蘭很大,
01:05
the size尺寸 of Mexico墨西哥,
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和墨西哥一樣大,
01:06
and its ice from top最佳 to bottom底部
is two miles英里 thick.
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冰的厚度,從頂部到底部共兩英哩。
01:10
But it's not just static靜態的.
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但它不是靜態的。
01:12
The ice flows流動 like a river
downhill下坡 towards the ocean海洋.
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冰就像河流一樣,
會流下山,流入海洋。
01:17
As it flows流動 around bends彎曲,
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當它流過彎道,
01:19
it deforms變形 and cracks裂縫.
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它會變形、破裂。
01:21
I get to study研究 these amazing驚人 ice dynamics動力學,
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我得以研究這些驚人的冰動態,
01:24
which哪一個 are located位於 in one of the most
remote遠程 physical物理 environments環境
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它們的所在地,
是地球上現存最偏遠的
01:27
remaining其餘 on earth地球.
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物理環境之一。
01:29
To work in glaciology冰川 right now
is like getting得到 in on the ground地面 floor地板
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現在投入研究冰河學,就像是來到
01:33
at FacebookFacebook的 in the 2000s.
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21 世紀初臉書的開端。
01:35
(Laughter笑聲)
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(笑聲)
01:37
Our capability能力 to fly airplanes飛機
and satellites衛星 over the ice sheets床單
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我們能讓飛機和衛星
飛過大冰原上方的能力,
01:40
is revolutionizing革新 glaciology冰川.
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對冰河學來說是項革新。
01:42
It's just starting開始 to do for science科學
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它開始對科學產生的作用,
01:44
what the smartphone手機
has doneDONE for social社會 media媒體.
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就像智慧手機
對社交媒體產生的作用。
01:47
The satellites衛星 are reporting報告
a wealth財富 of observations意見
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衛星能回報許多觀察資料,
01:50
that are revealing揭示 new hidden facts事實
about the ice sheets床單 continuously一直.
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不斷揭露出許多
關於大冰原的隱藏事實。
01:55
For instance, we have observations意見
of the size尺寸 of the Greenland格陵蘭 ice sheet
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比如,我們有格林蘭大冰原
大小的觀察資料,
01:59
every一切 month going back to 2002.
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從 2002 年開始每個月都有記錄。
02:02
You can look towards the bottom底部
of the screen屏幕 here
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各位可以看一下螢幕的底端,
02:04
to see the month and the year go forward前鋒.
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有相對應的月份和年份。
02:06
You can see that some areas
of the ice sheet melt熔化
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可以看到大冰原的一些區域會融化
02:09
or lose失去 ice in the summer夏季.
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或是在夏天時失去冰。
02:11
Other areas experience經驗 snowfall降雪
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其他區域則會遇到下雪
02:13
or gain獲得 ice back in the winter冬季.
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或是在冬天時重新生成冰。
02:16
This seasonal時令的 cycle週期, though雖然, is eclipsed黯然失色
by an overall總體 rate of mass loss失利
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不過,這種季節性循環,
與總量損失的速度一比就相形失色,
02:21
that would have stunned目瞪口呆
a glaciologist冰川學家 50 years年份 ago.
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五十年前的冰河學家
對此一定會很驚訝。
02:25
We never thought that an ice sheet could
lose失去 mass into the ocean海洋 this quickly很快.
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我們從來不會料到,大冰原失量
而流入海洋的速度會這麼快。
02:31
Since以來 these measurements測量 began開始 in 2002,
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從 2002 年開始記錄這些測量值起,
02:33
the ice sheet has lost丟失 so much ice
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大冰原已經損失了大量的冰,
02:36
that if that water were piled up
on our smallest最少 continent大陸,
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如果把它轉變成的水
堆積在我們最小的大陸上,
02:39
it would drown Australia澳大利亞 knee-deep沒膝深.
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澳洲的水就會淹到膝蓋這麼深了。
02:42
How is this possible可能?
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這怎麼可能?
02:45
Well, under the ice lies the bedrock基岩.
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在冰底下的是基岩。
02:48
We used radar雷達 to image圖片 the hills丘陵,
valleys山谷, mountains and depressions窪地
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針對冰所流經的
山丘、山谷、山岳、窪地,
02:53
that the ice flows流動 over.
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我們用雷達來製作出影像。
02:54
Hidden under the ice sheet are channels渠道
the size尺寸 of the Grand盛大 Canyon峽谷
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藏在大冰原底下的
是大峽谷這麼大的水道,
02:58
that funnel漏斗 ice and water
off of Greenland格陵蘭 and into the ocean海洋.
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將來自格林蘭的冰和水導入海中。
03:04
The reason原因 that radar雷達
can reveal揭示 the bedrock基岩
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雷達能夠看到基岩的原因,
03:06
is that ice is entirely完全
transparent透明 to radar雷達.
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是因為對雷達而言,
冰是完全透明的。
03:09
You can do an experiment實驗.
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你們可以做個實驗。
03:11
Go home and put
an ice cube立方體 in the microwave微波.
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回家,把一個冰塊放到微波爐中。
03:14
It won't慣於 melt熔化,
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它不會融化,
03:16
because microwaves微波爐, or radar雷達,
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因為微波,或雷達,
03:18
pass通過 straight直行 through通過 the ice
without interacting互動.
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會直接穿透冰,不會有相互作用。
03:22
If you want to melt熔化 your ice cube立方體,
you have to get it wet,
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若你想要將冰塊融解,
你得把它弄濕,
03:25
because water heats預賽 up easily容易
in the microwave微波.
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因為在微波之下,
水很容易就會加溫。
03:29
That's the whole整個 principle原理
the microwave微波 oven烤箱 is designed設計 around.
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那就是設計微波爐的原理。
03:32
Radar雷達 can see water.
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雷達能看得見水。
03:35
And radar雷達 has revealed透露
a vast廣大 pool of liquid液體 water
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雷達顯示出一個巨大的液態水水池,
03:38
hidden under my colleague同事 Olivia奧利維亞,
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它就隱藏在我同事奧莉微雅
03:40
seven stories故事 beneath下面 her feet.
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腳下七層樓的位置。
03:43
Here, she's used a pump
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照片中,她在用幫浦
03:44
to bring帶來 some of that water
back to the ice sheet's板材的 surface表面.
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把一些水抽回到大冰原的表面上。
03:47
Just six years年份 ago, we had no idea理念
this glacier冰川 aquifer含水層 existed存在.
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六年前,我們甚至不知道
有這個冰河含水層存在。
03:53
The aquifer含水層 formed形成
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含水層形成的原因,
03:55
when snow melts熔體 in the summer夏季 sun太陽
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是夏天太陽照射導致融雪,
03:57
and trickles涓涓細流 downward向下.
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融雪再向下流。
03:59
It puddles水坑 up in huge巨大 pools.
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它積成大池子。
04:02
From there, the snow acts行為 as an igloo雪屋,
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在那裡,雪的作用就像圓頂冰屋,
04:05
insulating絕緣 this water
from the cold and the wind above以上.
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把這地下水和上面的
嚴寒和寒風隔離開。
04:09
So the water can stay
hidden in the ice sheet
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因此,水可以繼續
以液態的形式隱藏在
04:11
in liquid液體 form形成 year after year.
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大冰原之下,一年又一年繼續下去。
04:14
The question is, what happens發生 next下一個?
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問題是,接下會發生什麼事?
04:17
Does the water stay there forever永遠?
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水就會永遠留在那裡嗎?
04:19
It could.
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有可能。
04:20
Or does it find a way out
to reach達到 the global全球 ocean海洋?
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或是水會找到出路,
進入到全球海洋中?
04:24
One possible可能 way
for the water to reach達到 the bedrock基岩
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水要到達基岩,再從那裡到達海洋,
04:27
and from there the ocean海洋
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其中的途徑之一,
04:29
is a crevasse裂縫, or a crack裂紋 in the ice.
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就是冰隙,或是冰的裂縫。
04:32
When cracks裂縫 fill with water,
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當裂縫充滿了水,
04:34
the weight重量 of the water
forces軍隊 them deeper更深 and deeper更深.
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水的重量會迫使裂縫不斷加深。
04:37
This is how fracking壓裂 works作品
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這就是壓裂法
04:39
to extract提取 natural自然 gas加油站
from deep within the earth地球.
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從地球深處取得天然瓦斯的方式。
04:42
Pressurized加壓 fluids流體 fracture斷裂 rocks岩石.
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加壓的液體會使岩石破裂。
04:44
All it takes is a crack裂紋 to get started開始.
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只要有一處裂縫做為起頭即可。
04:47
Well, we recently最近 discovered發現
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我們最近發現,
04:50
that there are cracks裂縫 available可得到
in the Greenland格陵蘭 ice sheet
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在格林蘭大冰原上的確有裂縫,
04:54
near this glacier冰川 aquifer含水層.
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距離這個冰河含水層很近。
04:56
You can fly over
most of the Greenland格陵蘭 ice sheet
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你飛過格林蘭大冰原上的大部份地方
04:58
and see nothing,
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可能什麼都看不到,
04:59
no cracks裂縫, no features特徵 on the surface表面,
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沒有裂縫、沒有地表特徵,
05:02
but as this helicopter直升機
flies蒼蠅 towards the coast,
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但當這架直升機飛向海岸,
05:06
the path路徑 that water would take
on its quest尋求 to flow downhill下坡,
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水要流下山丘時可能會走的路徑,
05:09
one crack裂紋 appears出現,
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有一個裂縫出現了,
05:11
then another另一個 and another另一個.
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接著又一個,又再一個。
05:14
Are these cracks裂縫 filled填充 with liquid液體 water?
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這些裂縫有充滿了水嗎?
05:17
And if so, how deep
do they take that water?
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如果有,它們把水帶到多深的地方?
05:20
Can they take it to the bedrock基岩
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它們能把水帶到基岩
05:21
and the ocean海洋?
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以及海洋嗎?
05:23
To answer回答 these questions問題,
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若要回答這些問題,
05:24
we need something
beyond remote遠程 sensing傳感 data數據.
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光是遙感探測資料是不夠的。
05:28
We need numeric數字 models楷模.
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我們需要數值模型。
05:31
I write numeric數字 models楷模
that run on supercomputers超級計算機.
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我寫在超級電腦上執行的數值模型。
05:34
A numeric數字 model模型
is simply只是 a set of equations方程
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數值模型就是一組方程式,
05:36
that works作品 together一起 to describe描述 something.
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這些方程式結合起來可描述某事物。
05:39
It can be as simple簡單
as the next下一個 number in a sequence序列 --
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可能很簡單,只是
序列的下一個數字──
05:42
one, three, five, seven --
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1、3、5、7 ──
05:45
or it can be a more complex複雜
set of equations方程
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也可能是一組比較複雜的方程式,
05:47
that predict預測 the future未來
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根據現在已知條件
05:49
based基於 on known已知 conditions條件 in the present當下.
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來預測未來。
05:51
In our case案件, what are
the equations方程 for how ice cracks裂縫?
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而我們的情況是需要找到
描述冰如何破裂的方程式。
05:56
Well, engineers工程師 already已經 have
a very good understanding理解
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工程師已經非常了解
05:59
of how aluminum, steel and plastics塑料
fracture斷裂 under stress強調.
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在壓力之下,鋁、鋼、
塑膠會如何斷裂。
06:04
It's an important重要 problem問題 in our society社會.
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那是我們社會中的一個重要問題。
06:07
And it turns out
that the engineering工程 equations方程
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結果發現,工程上用來說明材料
06:10
for how materials物料 fracture斷裂
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如何斷裂的方程式,
06:11
are not that different不同
from my physics物理 homework家庭作業.
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和我的物理作業沒有很大的不同。
06:14
So I borrowed them, adapted適應 them for ice,
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所以我借用了它們,針對冰做改寫,
06:17
and then I had a numeric數字 model模型
for how a crevasse裂縫 can fracture斷裂
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我就得到了一個數值模型,
可以說明當冰隙充滿了
來自含水層的水時,它會如何破裂。
06:20
when filled填充 with water from the aquifer含水層.
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06:24
This is the power功率 of math數學.
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這就是數學的力量。
06:25
It can help us understand理解
real真實 processes流程 in our world世界.
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它能協助我們了解
我們世界上的實際情況。
06:29
I'll show顯示 you now
the results結果 of my numeric數字 model模型,
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現在來看看,我的數值模型
產出了什麼結果,
06:32
but first I should point out
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但,首先,我要說明一點,
06:34
that the crevasse裂縫 is about
a thousand times narrower than it is deep,
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冰隙的深度和寬度差了千倍,
06:38
so in the main主要 panel面板 here,
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所以在這面大螢幕上,
06:39
we've我們已經 zoomed放大 in to better see the details細節.
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我們會放大來看清楚細節。
06:41
You can look to the smaller
panel面板 on the right
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你們可以看看右邊比較小的螢幕,
06:43
to see the true真正 scale規模
for how tall and skinny枯瘦 the crevasse裂縫 is.
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那裡呈現的是冰隙的
真實比例,又高又瘦。
06:48
As the aquifer含水層 water
flows流動 into the crevasse裂縫,
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隨著含水層的水流入裂隙,
06:51
some of it refreezesrefreezes
in the negative 15 degree Celsius攝氏 ice.
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在攝氏零下 15 度的冰中,
有部份的水會結冰。
06:55
That's about as cold
as your kitchen廚房 freezer冰箱.
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那溫度和你廚房裡的
冰箱溫度一樣低。
06:57
But this loss失利 can be overcome克服
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但這種水損失是可以被克服的,
06:59
if the flow rate in from
the glacier冰川 aquifer含水層 is high enough足夠.
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如果冰河含水層的水
流速夠高就可以。
07:03
In our case案件, it is,
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我們遇到的情況就是如此,
07:05
and the aquifer含水層 water drives驅動器 the crevasse裂縫
all the way to the base基礎 of the ice sheet
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含水層的水延著冰隙
一路通到一千公尺以下的
07:09
a thousand meters below下面.
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大冰原基部。
07:12
From there, it has a clear明確 path路徑
to reach達到 the ocean海洋.
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從那裡就有條順暢的路徑
可以直達海洋。
07:16
So the aquifer含水層 water is a part部分
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所以,全球社會所經歷到
07:18
of the three millimeters毫米
per year of sea level水平 rise上升
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海平面每年上升三毫米的現象,
07:22
that we experience經驗 as a global全球 society社會.
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部份原因就是含水層的水。
07:26
But there's more:
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但還不只這樣:
07:27
the aquifer含水層 water
might威力 be punching沖孔 above以上 its weight重量.
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含水層的水可能
還會做超乎預期的事。
07:31
The ice flows流動 in complex複雜 ways方法.
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冰的流動方式很複雜。
07:35
In some places地方, the ice flows流動 very fast快速.
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在一些地方,冰的流動非常快。
07:37
There tends趨向 to be water
at the base基礎 of the ice sheet here.
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在這些地方,大冰原的
基部通常就會有水。
07:41
In other places地方, not so fast快速.
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在其他地方流速就沒那麼快。
07:43
Usually平時, there's not water
present當下 at the base基礎 there.
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那些地方通常就沒有水。
07:46
Now that we know the aquifer含水層 water
is getting得到 to the base基礎 of the ice sheet,
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現在我們已經知道含水層的水
會到達大冰原的基部了,
07:50
the next下一個 question is:
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下一個問題就是:
07:52
Is it making製造 the ice itself本身
flow faster更快 into the ocean海洋?
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它是否會讓冰本身
流向海洋的速度更快?
07:58
We're trying to uncover揭露 these mysteries奧秘
hidden inside the Greenland格陵蘭 ice sheet
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我們在試著解開這些隱藏在
格林蘭大冰原內的謎題,
08:01
so that we can better plan計劃
for the sea level水平 rise上升 it holds持有.
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這樣我們才能做更好的規劃,
因應它造成的海平面上升。
08:06
The amount of ice
that Greenland格陵蘭 has lost丟失 since以來 2002
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從 2002 年開始,
格林蘭所喪失的冰量,
08:09
is just a small fraction分數
of what that ice sheet holds持有.
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相對於大冰原含有的冰量,
是非常微小的。
08:14
Ice sheets床單 are immense巨大, powerful強大 machines
that operate操作 on long timescales時間表.
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大冰原是巨大且強大的機器,
在很長的時間尺度上運作。
08:19
In the next下一個 80 years年份, global全球 sea levels水平
will rise上升 at least最小 20 centimeters公分,
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在接下來八十年,全球海平面
會再上升至少 20 公分,
08:24
perhaps也許 as much as one meter儀表,
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甚至有可能到 1 公尺,
08:26
and maybe more.
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也許更高。
08:28
Our understanding理解
of future未來 sea level水平 rise上升 is good,
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我們對於未來海平面
上升的情況算是很了解,
08:31
but our projections預測 have a wide range範圍.
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但我們預測值的範圍很大。
08:34
It's our role角色 as glaciologists冰川學家
and scientists科學家們
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我們身為冰河學家和科學家的職責,
08:37
to narrow狹窄 these uncertainties不確定性.
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就是要降低這些不確定性。
08:40
How much sea level水平 rise上升 is coming未來,
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將來海平面還會上升多少、
08:43
and how fast快速 will it get here?
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上升的速度又有多快?
08:46
We need to know how much and how fast快速,
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我們需要知道上升多少、上升多快,
08:50
so the world世界 and its communities社區 can
plan計劃 for the sea level水平 rise上升 that's coming未來.
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讓世界和其社區能夠針對將來的
海平面上升做出因應計畫。
08:55
Thank you.
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謝謝。
08:56
(Applause掌聲)
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(掌聲)
Translated by Lilian Chiu
Reviewed by Helen Chang

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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Kristin Poinar - Glaciologist
Kristin Poinar uses remote sensing and numerical models to study the interaction of meltwater with ice flow, especially on the Greenland Ice Sheet.

Why you should listen

Hidden under many meters of ice, a pool of meltwater lies under the Greenland Ice Sheet. Kristin Poinar studies how the meltwater forms and flows in this dynamic glacial system. She asks: How did this water get there, and where does it go? How much water is in there? And how is climate change affecting this system?

Using data from Operation IceBridge flights and from field instruments, she's building a numerical model of how crevasses form and channel water. In fact, a NASA report released in February 2017 revealed a new pathway her team discovered for meltwater to reach the ocean. Using physically based models to constrain the bounds of what is realistic has shaped Poinar's interest in glaciology.

Poinar is currently a postdoctoral researcher at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. She will be moving to the University at Buffalo in winter 2017 to be a professor in the Geology Department and the RENEW Institute.

More profile about the speaker
Kristin Poinar | Speaker | TED.com